This section of the site is for researchers to share custom computer programs, files, tips, and information useful for developing computer-controlled experimental procedures.
Computer Programs and Resources from The National University of Ireland, Maynooth
Computer Programs and Resources from The University of Mississippi
Our lab at Ole Miss has made software available for both the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure and the traditional Matching-to-Sample software. At the links below, you will find both the installable programs and the source code for both experimental preparations. This software was designed to run on PC type computers and written in Microsoft VB.NET programming language. Be sure to read the manual carefully before running this software. We have used this software successfully on a variety of PC's in our lab at Ole Miss. These computers are both Pentium 4 and AMD Athlon machines using both XP and Windows 2000 operating systems. However, we can make no gaurantees that this software will run on any other user's machine. As such, you should use this software at your own risk.
Disclaimer: All software and files provided on this site are distributed on an "as is" basis. The webmaster or authors of the programs assume no responsibility for problems or damage resulting from the use of these products.
Below is a zip file containing the Ole Miss IRAP (version 3.5). The program is easy to learn and readily adapted for your own research interests. The pdf file is the current manual for installing and using the program. I recommend reading this manual before anything else (it's only six pages). In addition to installation instructions and explanations of the program features, it also contains some useful information about handling participants and accessing data.
While the Ole Miss IRAP is copyrighted, this was done to keep it freely available. I encourage researchers to use, distribute, and modify the program as they see fit. Feel free to contact me if you encounter technical problems installing or using the program, or even if you would just like to bounce a study idea off of me. I'm all about the research and will do what I can to help.
Have fun!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NcgI-rxJOP8
Description: This is an old clip that's been used in a number of introductory RFT / derived relations slideshows. The video shows a chimpanzee having great difficulty in her efforts to solve a bidirectional task (after having learned a correspondence between different people and different letters on a keyboard, she has to «say» who goes to who by using a symbol meaning «to go to»).
This list includes research articles that contain original data relevant to RFT. It is hard to update this list so you should also go to the publications database and download more recent things. Members can add daughter pages and I think some can edit this actual page (try) to add annotation or new pieces. If not, you can email Michael Levin at levinm2@gmail.com to have content added to this page.
In Press
One of the first two empirical studies to test the validity of the IRAP by comparing it to the IAT using a "known-groups" approach. The studies also introduce the use of the D-IRAP algorithm.
One of the first two empirical studies to test the validity of the IRAP by comparing it to the IAT using a "known-groups" approach. The studies also introduce the use of the D-IRAP algorithm.
The first empirical study that used the IRAP to investigate the relationship between relational responding and IQ. Although not reported in the article, the research allowed us to determine that the D-IRAP algorithm appears to control for individual differences in cognitive ability.
The first IRAP study that involved using comparative relations as a means of determining implicit relative preferences for different social groups. This was also the first study to show a clear divergence between responses on the IRAP and an explicit measure.
The first empirical study that aimed to develop a self-esteem IRAP.
2008
The first empirical study of the IRAP. The article also provides a brief potted history of the research that led to the development of the procedure.
This interesting study demonstrated that participants will demonstrate avoidance based on the stimulus relations of “same” and “opposite.” Control participants provided evidence that the transformation was a direct product of a relational learning history. Although equivalence may account for the finding, the explanation is circuitous.
2007
In a combined multiple baseline (across responses and participants) and multiple probe design (with trained and untrained stimuli), it was shown that reinforced multiple exemplar training facilitated the development of arbitrary comparative relations, and that these skills generalized not just across stimuli but also across trial types.
Transformation of respondent stimulus functions via more-than/less-than direct and derived relations.
This is a very straightforward study programming transformation of function with young children. The first experiment simply exposed four children to action-object exemplar training and tested for symmetry. Experiment two enhanced transformation via multiple exemplar training; effectively demonstrating the ability to program stimulus relations via exemplar training.
The first empirical study that sought to determine if the IRAP can be readily faked.
2006
This paper describes 2 studies that present a conceptual interpretation and experimental findings involving developing and dismantling of equivalence classes consisting of terrorist stimuli. Results of experiment 1 showed that participants made predictable responses to stimuli during pretest, however made fewer culturally controlled responses after training. Experiment 2 showed that it was easy to acquire relations involving terrorist stimuli when compared to two other conditions. Implications are discussed.
The effect of two types of verbal consequences, rule-following feedback and task performance feedback, on rule-induced insensitivity to programmed schedules of reinforcement were examined. Rule-following feedback could be either accurate or non-contingently positive. The task involved moving a sign through a grid using telegraph keys operating on a multiple DRL 6/FR 18 schedule of reinforcement in the presence of an initially accurate rule. After acquisition, the multiple schedule was changed without notice to a FR 1/FI Yoked schedule. Accurate rule-following feedback plus feedback on task performance produced striking insensitivity to the DRL 6 to FR 1 schedule change, the opposite of what might be expected by a common sense analysis of task performance feedback, even after controlling for contact with the changed contingency. It is argued that findings such as these can only be understood by considering the mutual verbal relations evoked by the combinations of rules and feedback, rather than treating feedback as a simple consequential event or as a verbal consequence whose effects do not depend on the relations sustained with other events.
This article used the stimulus paring observation procedure to demonstrate transformation of arousal functions, and provided further evidence that anxiety responses can participate in arbitrary relational frames and produce problematic clinical outcomes.
2005
This study used event related potentials to test the RFT prediction that same-same relations are simpler and functionally distinct different-different analogical reasoning. Reaction times were significantly longer, and waveforms were significantly more negative for different-different than they were for same-same relations. This is consistent with the prediction based on RFT.
One of the first uses of RFT in higher education. Here is the abstract: Following a pretest, 11 participants who were naive with regard to various algebraic and trigonometric transformations received an introductory lecture regarding the fundamentals of the rectangular coordinate system. Following the lecture, they took part in a computer-interactive matching-to-sample procedure in which they received training on particular formula-to-formula and formula-to-graph relations as these formulas pertain to reflections and vertical and horizontal shifts. In training A-B, standard formulas served as samples and factored formulas served as comparisons. In training B-C, factored formulas served as samples and graphs served as comparisons. Subsequently, the program assessed for mutually entailed B-A and C-B relations as well as combinatorially entailed C-A and A-C relations. After all participants demonstrated mutual entailment and combinatorial entailment, we employed a test of novel relations to assess 40 different and complex variations of the original training formulas and their respective graphs. Six of 10 participants who completed training demonstrated perfect or near-perfect performance in identifying novel formula-to-graph relations. Three of the 4 participants who made more than three incorrect responses during the assessment of novel relations showed some commonality among their error patterns. Derived transfer of stimulus control using mathematical relations is discussed.
2004
This article describes traditional tasks that relate to what developmental literature calls “Theory of Mind. ” Its goals were to develop and test a protocol across groups in several different developmental stages (young children through adulthood) that indicated that perspective taking could be described in terms of relational responding (arbitrarily applicable, mutually entailed, combinatorily entailed, and showing transformation of stimulus function) and that added but did not contradict the traditional and developmental literature. Study 1 tested the protocol, Study 2 tested whether young children’s poor response was an artifact of word length, and Study 3 tested whether the experimenter’s cues affected responding. Results from three studies indicated indeed that perspective taking can be viewed as an operant, and that deictic frames across three levels of complexity were functionally distinct classes of behavior. A developmental profile emerged, showing that derived relational responding develops with age as well as relational complexity. Further, I-YOU relations emerge before HERE-THERE and NOW-THEN relations, and NOW-THEN relations produced the most errors in all participants regardless of age.
Results from two studies examining instructional control on novel stimulus situations are described. The researchers employed the Relational Evaluation Procedure to train relations and then tested these in novel situations. Results support the idea that novel instructions can control behavior and that RFT provides an adequate model for the generativity of language.
This study provides an empirical demonstration of analogy using the Relational Evaluation Procedure (REP), a recently developed technique for the rapid training and testing of derived stimulus relations. The experiment involved 9 stages in which 5 adult male subjects were exposed to a complex series of REP training and testing protocols, by the end of which they each readily demonstrated 24 completely novel instances of responding in accordance with analogical relations as conceptualized by RFT.
Formative augmenting, behavior due to relational networks that establish given consequences as reinforcers or as punishers, was demonstrated in accordance with Same and Opposite relational networks. Some stimuli acquired reinforcing functions, based on the derived relation of Opposite, although in some cases no such function had actually been established for any member of the network. These effects were also observed across ABA reversals in the baseline contingencies.
Authors demonstrated through two experiments that stimuli acquired reinforcing functions based on derived relational networks. This research supports the idea of formative augmenting: the degree to which events function as consequences was altered based on relational networks of Same and Opposite and more-than and less-than.
2003
This study attempted to train equivalence-equivalence relations with 5-year-old children. Only 8 of 18 showed equivalence-equivalence relations when tested. The procedure was then tested with adults and was successful with all of them.
Showed that multiple-exemplar training with auditory-visual exclusion tasks facilitated nonreinforced exclusion performances which reduced error rates on subsequent novel stimulus sets.
2002
This study tested equivalence-equivalence and nonequivalence-nonequivalence relations with adults, 9-year-olds, and 5-year-olds. Most of the adults and 9-year-olds demonstrated these relations, but the 5-year-olds did not.
Transformation of functions among members in equivalence classes
Building on the work of Gomez et al (1999; 2001), the authors established effective contextual control over the Generalised Break Equivalence Pattern (GBEP) which provides further support for the generalized operant nature of derived relational responding.
The authors measured response latencies to mutually entailed same, opposite, more-than, and less-than relations. Response latencies to same and opposite relations were significantly faster than more-than and less-than relations. A second experiment showed a gradual decrease in response latency for more/less relations across a novel stimulus set.
This study explored a behavior-analytic model of analogical reasoning, defined as the discrimination of formal similarity via equivalence-equivalence responding. Equivalence classes were trained, and subjects responded according to equivalence-equivalence relations. Subjects discriminated by shape or color of a relata. Transformation of stimulus functions of a block-sorting task based on this model of analogy was also shown.
2001
This paper demonstrates that multiple exemplar training provides the necessary history to establish transformation across symmetry relations. Four studies confirmed that after relatively few exemplar training sessions, transformation could occur even across response modalities.
This study clears some questions raised by Part I. Specifically, the authors found that naming is not a critical component of transformation, and children could readily demonstrate transformed functions in accordance with symmetry with no history of naming. The third part of the study examined the effects of pre-training. Results suggest that pre-training may be effective, but if not, to forgo additional pre-training and move immediately to multiple exemplar training.
The objective of this study was to produce responding in accordance with symmetry and transitivity but not with equivalence across novel stimulus sets. Building on the work of Gomez et al (1999), the authors employed several new procedures to generate ‘broken’ equivalence relations which provides support for the generalized operant nature of derived relational responding.
The authors measured response latencies to mutually entailed same, opposite, more-than, and less-than relations. Response latencies to same and opposite relations were significantly faster than more-than and less-than relations. A second experiment showed a gradual decrease in response latency for more/less relations across a novel stimulus set.]
This study demonstrated equivalence-equivalence responding based on the abstraction of common formal properties.
2000
Transfer of respondent eliciting functions occurs even among compound stimuli.
Demonstrated that response patterns on novel stimulus sets was controlled by the feedback delivered for previous stimulus sets.
Similar to the study above but with young children as subjects.
Following on from Roche and Barnes (1997) and McGeady and Roche (1997), the authors demonstrate four distinct contextually-controlled transformations of function by presenting the contextual cue along with the derived stimuli. Skin resistance responses and operant discriminations are measured. Still the only study to employ such a testing format.
1999
The objective of this study was to produce responding in accordance with symmetry and transitivity but not with equivalence, across novel stimulus sets.
1998
A follow-up study to Dymond & Barnes (1994). Subjects were not given equivalence training this time but were instead trained in a series of conditional discriminations. Also, some subjects were given extensive instructions and others were given minimal instructions. Neither of these factors affected the subjects performance and the results from previous experiments were replicated.
Showed that priming effects that are well known in semantically related words also occurred in nonsense stimuli related through equivalence.
Delivering accurate or inaccurate feedback to subjects following a test for derived equivalence relations produces responding on subsequent tests that is consistent with that feedback. One of the first to demonstrate the operant nature of relation responding.
1997
This study examined the RFT approach to analogical reasoning. Subjects were trained on several equivalence relations. They were then shown pairs of relata in which both of the relata were from the same relation or in which both relata were from different relations. The subjects successfully matched pairs of same with same and different with different.
The first study to show a transformation of respondently conditioned sexual arousal functions, measured as skin resistance responses, through same and opposite relations. An excellent demonstration of how to conduct complex electrodermal research within an RFT framework.
1996
Using educationally-relevant real world stimuli such as "slow" and "able" as well as the subject's own name, the authors show how developmentally-delayed children come to fail tests for equivalence when the predicted outcome is in contrast to their learning history. That is, subjects did not relate their own name to "able." A neat study on prior-learning effects in equivalence formation.
Demonstrates a transformation of functions in accordance with sameness and oppositon, using several matching-to-sample control tasks to prevent formation of simple equivalence and nonequivalence relations.
The first in a series of studies investigating a new procedure for the derivation of equivalence relations. “Training” merely involves observing on-screen presentations of stimulus pairs and then testing for equivalence using a match-to-sample format. More effective in establishing equivalence than standard MTS arrangements.
After Steele & Hayes, the first study to systematically examine the relational frame of distinction using socially-loaded stimuli. This study inspired a series of exchanges between the authors and Richard Saunders in the same volume on the relationship between equivalence and RFT.
1995
Transfer and contextually-controlled transfer in kids of different ages with the older subjects passing the more complex tests. A nice example of a nonautomated transfer study.
The first study to show three patterns of derived relational responding in accordance with sameness, more-than, and less-than. Alternative explanations for the transformation test outcomes are considered and found wanting. The relational network figure has been reproduced in several different publications
1994
A cogent introduction to RFT in which the author compares "Sidman equivalence" with RFT, offers a respondent analysis of symmetry, and predicts various outcomes of training designs. Good for an undergraduate introduction to the area
One of the early articles studying the transfer of respondent eliciting functions.
Four subjects were trained in matching-to-sample tasks and equivalence relations. They showed the expected transfer of self-discrimination response functions. Four control subjects either received training in matching to sample but were not tested on equivalence or were trained and tested using stimuli not used in the transfer test. None of these showed the transfer of self-discrimination response functions.
1993
An elegant demonstration of transfer of functions through equivalence relations, with and without a prior equivalence test, and a generalised transfer through non-arbitrary relations. One of the most-cited transfer articles.
Showed the development of derived stimulus relations, including equivalence and exclusion, in a human infant.
1991
Showed the transfer of consequential functions through equivalence relations, both simple and conditional.
Showed that transfer effects extended to conditional stimuli that themselves regulated derived relational responding. Extends the analysis to social stereotyping
The first experimental demonstration that establishing cues that controlled non-arbitrary stimulus relations later produced multiple forms of derived relational responding with arbitrary stimulus sets. One of the first clear experimental demonstrations of RFT.
This study examined whether social categorization could be explored in terms of stimulus equivalence by testing whether equivalence training could be transferred to untrained social stimuli. The study had Irish Protestants, Irish Catholics and English Protestants go through a series of matching-to-sample procedures in which they were trained to match Protestant or Catholic stimuli with non-sense syllables. The findings suggest that previous learning might interfere with equivalence responding in the experimental training.
1990 and earlier
Authors describe results of two studies attempting to specify the relationship between verbal and nonverbal behavior in the context of rule following. Two stimulus equivalence relationships were trained and then subjects were tested for production of novel behavior. Novel behavior was produced in both the presence and absence of names provided for the equivalence classes.
One of the early articles studying the transfer of stimulus functions among members in equivalent classes.
Showed the transfer of discriminative functions through equivalence relations]
Showed a correlation between receptive language skills and the derivation of equivalence. Interpreted this correlation in RFT terms, suggesting that the correlation was due to the functional overlap of the two tasks.
It seems important to let the world know about RFT research failures or disconfirmations of the theory. If you have any, please add a daughter page and describe the study as well as you can to let the community know about it. If you have ideas about why it might have failed, feel free to list them. If you think that it did not work because RFT is incorrect, feel free to state that and to suggests necessary changes to the theory, both big and small.
If few pages are added, do not jump to the conclusion that there are few failures. This page is designed to invite them into the light but often researchers hold failures back.
To this date, I confess I know of no RFT failures. But if they are there, we want them to be known, and given good visibility here on the ACBS website.
Please add a daughter page describing any predictions you may have based on RFT. You should state the reasons for the prediction clearly, and be sure to leave your name.
By putting it on the page you are giving away the idea -- anyone is free to test it. However, we would ask if anyone does that, they ask the individual if they want to be acknowledged in the article that may result (not necesarily as an author, but perhaps in a footnote ... such as "The core ideas tested in this article was first suggested to us by Bessy Bluebottom, and we would like to thank her for the suggestion." Something like that.)
Some theoretical questions and question-hypotheses concerning the IRAP and RFT:
The IRAP seems to be a measure of implicit preferences, in contrast with the explicit preferences. Explicit preferences are more influenced by social control (eg political correctness).
1. Does relational framing influence the more implicit preferences as well as the explicit? And if yes, how?
2. Can we say it’s good to be aware of our implicit preferences (as revealed by the IRAP) and make choices without bringing them into account? The implicit is good to know, to realize it’s there. But the explicit is the more important? We can learn to live our life in the direction of our explicit preferences. E.g.: ‘Muslims are terrorists’ vs ‘I want to live with all kinds of people. Not all Muslims are equal. I do respect them.’ IRAP might reveal the first relation, but the second could be more important.
3. When existing relational networks are extended with new S, will these S influence the implicit functions or the explicit or both (depending on context)?
4. when the implicit preferences and the explicit preferences are different, contextual influences are responsible for these differences? Experiential avoidance, political correctness, … If these contextual S are not present, the implicit and explicit preferences are growing more toward each other?
5. cognitive therapy is working on the explicit relations by social control? After cognitive therapy the implicit positions might stay unchanged?
6. when the social pressure is very high (IRAP on ‘Muslims are terrorists’ taken by a clearly Muslim researcher and without anonymity) even the implicit measures could be influenced? (contextual cues are stronger).
7. explicit, but perhaps also implicit preferences can reverse? E.g. the Muslim-experiment described above: when after a while the apparently-Muslim researcher says he’s anti-Muslim (eg political refugee) – after this the IRAP-scores might reverse?
Francis De Groot
francis.de.groot@fracarita.org
First, I would like to say that, from my reading of Part I. in the RFT book, it seems the overall program of research has a stable foothold within behavior analysis. This is further accentuated by the fact that applied research is beginning to appear in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (see Ninness et al.)in which RFT principles are built into a computer program which teaches trigonomic functions and their graphical representations in an efficient manner. Believe me, it works...I am a co-author on the latest of these RFT/math studies, and, coming into the project, I knew pretty much nothing about functions and their graphical representations but after approx. an hour in the program as a pilot subject I had a firm grasp on the concepts...as well as many novel formulae and graphs never before seen.
Because work like this is emerging along side a strong basic research program, I think RFT is here to stay. As for its future, I have been working on a way to study meta/macrocontingencies and cultural materialism in a basic laboratory setting. This area is the domain of "cultural analysis," or "behavioral anthropology," and even crosses over into OBM. When studied behavior-analytically the phrase "culture" is really synonymous with "social behavior."
If this basic research catches on, I predict the future could see a merging of both research programs in order to study how relational framing operates in relation to social behavior. The beauty about this particular social-behavioral research program is that it begins (presumably) in a laboratory setting analogous to the most basic contexts which give rise to interlocking contingencies as they occur in nature, and as they (presumably) occurred in the evolution of cultures. So, this program would (presumably) be the most thourough, inductive, investigation of social behavior to-date. This is similar to the beginnings of the behavior-analytic research program in general: Skinner started with the most basic contexts and slowly built upon them until now, where we can study language and cognition, and do so in an inductive, non-hypothetical, manner.
Perhaps combining RFT with such research could reveal principles relevant to symbolic behavior, myths, taboos, and "norms" etc... but would do so with the precision of a basic behavioral laboratory. Other basic researchers are already hard at work developing an equation of choice behavior, perhaps a few decades will reveal equations of norms, taboos, and even a "terrorism equation." It seems pretty far-fetched, but what an exciting way to earn a living!
RFT and magical thinking: hypothesis
A hypothesis: is it possible that the period of ‘magical thinking’ in the development of children (enduring until adulthood) is depending on the development of processes central in RFT: developing of mutual entailment, literality of thoughts, reason giving and causal thinking? When children are developing those skills, but aren’t fully acquainted with them, they might more easily fall in the traps of magical thinking.
Possible test: children who are later in developing those skills, should show delayed magical thinking too (and vice versa).
Francis De Groot
francis.de.groot@fracarita.org
I challenged the RFT list serve to come up with some good solid predictions that went beyond the several dozen in the RFT book.
This list, raw and unfiltered, is the result. Some of these ideas are great. Some seem off. And anyone was and is allowed to play. But it seemed more important to get people thinking than to get it right if "right" meant that some "leader" says "this is right."
If you have ideas, back up to the next highest level and add a child page and put yours out there!
- S
Steve Hayes
Predictions from Steve
Steve posted a list of new things RFT does to the Academy of Cognitive Therapy
June 2005. The list was:
RFT:
----------
What happens to Crel and Cfun in RFT studies when you teach folks to apply defusion during testing, and or when you teach defusion, train, and then test? I am thinking of M Dougher's recent study with > or < relations with shock. I wonder whether defusion would alter the transformation, perhaps leading subjects to not rip off the shock electrodes in the context of > relation. I wonder whether defusion would strengthen or perhaps weaken Crel and/or Cfun. My guess is that it may result in more rapid learning of Crel, but knock out Cfun. This would be cool to show. Maybe someone has done this, but if not we really should cook up some experiments along these lines.
-j forsyth
------------
1. Additional corollary hypotheses:
(A) Speed of acquisition of AARR during an REP task (i.e., number of trials needed to respond consistently correctly) will correlate significantly and inversely with verbal IQ. (can’t recall off hand if Denis O’Hora has already tested this specifically yet).
(B) This one would be a doozie to quantify and test, but it follows from RFT: Subjects presented with a novel metaphor who generate higher numbers of apt comparisons (especially in shorter amounts of time) will perform better (i.e., will respond correctly more frequently and given less training trials) in an REP task that assesses their ability to correctly derive relations after two previously trained frames are brought into coordination.
2. Additional corollary hypotheses:
(A) AARR in fully verbal subjects will fail to occur over time within an experimental context, given a consistent lack of reinforcement for AARR and/or consistent punishment of AARR within that context.
3. Additional corollary hypotheses:
(A) The same established verbal relation (e.g., A is similar to B, which is similar to C) can be shown to accompany different functional transformations across different experimental contexts.
(B) Identical functional transformations can be shown to be achieved through the training of different verbal relations.
J T
---------------
read some RFT-research on the change of psychological function of stimulus C by putting it in relation with A-B (sexual excitement, taste preference, mood). What if C is relationally framed with 2 different classes: A-B-C, and X-Y-C. And let's say A is experienced a bit negative, and X also a bit negative. Would C become experienced more negative, than when it's framed with only one class? This might be an operationalisation of multiple small life experiences leading to a larger reaction.
De Groot, Francis [francis.de.groot@fracarita.org]
This section of the site is for researchers to share instructions, information, and data useful for running computer-controlled experimental procedures.
It is our hope that in sharing such information we can develop best practices to reduce the influence of extraneous variables on the results of computer-controlled RFT studies.
Please tell the community about what you and your lab do.
This page includes a link to a listserv discussion on training relational operants. Click here to access the page.